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Contiguous interviews accept long been the dominant interview technique in the field of qualitative enquiry. In the final two decades, phone interviewing became more and more mutual. Due to the explosive growth of new communication forms, such as computer mediated communication (for case e-mail and chat boxes), other interview techniques can be introduced and used within the field of qualitative inquiry. For a report in the domain of virtual teams, I used various communication possibilities to interview informants every bit well as confront-to-confront interviews. In this article a comparison will be fabricated concerning the advantages and disadvantages of face-to-face up, telephone, due east-mail and MSN messenger interviews. By including telephone and MSN messenger interviews in the comparison, the scope of this article is broader than the article of BAMPTON and COWTON (2002). URN: urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs0604118

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Advantages and Disadvantages

of 4 Interview Techniques in Qualitative Research

Raymond Opdenakker

Abstract: Face up-to-face interviews have long been the ascendant interview techniqudue east in the field of

qualitative research. In the last 2 decades, telephone interviewing became more and more

common. Due to the explosive growth of new communication forms, such as figurer mediated

communication (for instance due east-yardail and chat boxes), other interview techniques can be introduced

and used inside the field of qualitative research.

For a written report in the domain of virtual teams, I used various communication possibilities to interview

informants as well as face-to-face interviews. In this commodity a comparison will be made concerning

the advantages and disadvantages of contiguous, telephone, e-mail and MSN messenger

interviews. By including telephone and MSN messenger interviews in the comparison, the scope of

this article is broader than the article of BAMPTON and COWTON (2002).

Table of Contents

i. Introduction

2. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Four Interview Techniques

2.1 Contiguous interviews: Synchronous advice of timeastward and place

two.2 Telephone interviews: Synchronous communication of time, asynchronous communication of

identify

two.iii MSN messenger interviews: Synchronous communication of time, equallyynchronous

communication of place

2.four E-mail interviews: Asynchronous communication of time and identify

3. Summary

4. Conclusions

Acknowledgement

References

Writer

Citation

1. Introduction

KVALE (1983, p.174) defines the qualitative research interview as "an interview,

whose purpose is to gather descriptions of the life-earth of the interviewee with

respect to interpretation of the meaning of the described phenomena". Collecting

these descriptions can be washed in several ways, of which contiguous interviews

are the most common. Too Face-to-Face (FtF) interviews, interviewing by

telephone is pop as well. But also interviewing using the Internet is rising. Due to

developments in computer technology, all kinds of computer mediated

communication (CMC) tools have been developed. With CMC is meant: a

process where messages are electronically transferred from a sender to one or

Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research (ISSN 1438-5627)

Volume 7, No. 4, Art. 11

September 2006

Key words:

interviews,

figurer

mediated com-

munication (CMC),

face-to-face

interview, electronic mail

interview, MSN

messenger

interview,

telephone

interview

FORUThou: QUALITATIVE

SouthOC IA50 R E Due southE ARC H

SOZIALFORSCHUNG

FQS 7(4), Art. 11, Raymond Opdenakker:

Advantages and Disadvantages of Four Interview Techniques in Qualitative Research

more recipient(s), both in synchronous (in existent time) and in asynchronous

(contained from time and place) setting. Examples of tools used for CMC are

e-postal service and chat boxes (equally MSN messenger), which besides tin can exist used for

interviews. [one]

The experiences with the four mentioned interview techniques were gained during

my research of EU funded virtual teams, from which squad members were

dispersed all over Europe. I tried to carry equally much FtF interviews as possible in

the outset place, but due to time and financial constraints this was non e'er

possible. Too doing research on virtual teams, where FtF communication has

decreased in favour of other forms of communication, paved the way for me to

use other interview techniques. Although it would have been likely to found

telephone interviews, non all interviewees were in favour of it. Equally one interviewee

remarked "Nosotros tin can do information technology (the interview) by an Instant Messaging tool as well. If it

takes an hour, I recollect it volition exist better and less disturbing for my colleagues". The

focus of this research was semi-structured interviews. [two]

In this article four types of interview techniques volition be compared: FtF interviews,

telephone interviews, MSN messenger interviews, and email interviews. The

focus of this article is concentrated on the ways in which the four interview

techniques differ from each other, thus highlighting the advantages and

disadvantages. Whenever possible, the experiences from ky own interviews are

mentioned. [three]

2. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Four Interview Techniques

When comparison the four interview techniques, the differences in advantages

and disadvantages are on one hand related to their differences on the

dimensions synchronous communication in time and/or infinite and asynchronous

communication in time and/or space. Tabular array 1 presents the four interview

techniques related to these dimensions.

Time Place

Synchronous

communication

FtF

MSN messenger

Phone

FtF

Asynchronous

communication

E-mail service Electronic mail

MSN messenger

Telephone

Tabular array 1: The four interview techniques divided by synchronous/asynchronous

communication in fourth dimension and/or space [4]

FtF interviews are characterised by synchronous communication in fourth dimension and

place. MSN messenger and telephone interviews are characterised by

FQS 7(iv), Art. xi, Raymond Opdenakker:

Advantages and Disadvantages of Four Interview Techniques in Qualitative Enquiry

synchronous advice in time, but asynchronous communication in identify.

E-mail interviews are characterised as asynchronous communication in time and

place. One could argue that MSN messenger and phone interviews are

characterised by synchronous communication in internet. As cyberspace is

divers as "the noplace" (MORSE, 1998), communication in a virtual place brings

with it other advantages and disadvantages than communication in a real place,

every bit in FtF interviews. Therefore with synchronous communication of identify is

meant a real place, and not a virtual place. [5]

On the other mitt advantages and disadvantages of the iv interview

techniques are related to the technology used. [6]

2.1 Confront-to-confront interviews: Synchronous communication of time and place

Every bit already mentioned, FtF interviews are characterised by synchronous

communication in time and place. Due to this synchronous communication, as no

other interview method FtF interviews can have its advantage of social cues.

Social cues, such as voice, intonation, body language etc. of the interviewee tin can

give the interviewer a lot of extra information that tin can be added to the exact

reply of the interviewee on a question. Of course the value of social cues besides

depends on what the interviewer wants to know from the interviewee. If the

interviewer is seen as a discipline, and as an irreplaceable person, from whom the

interviewer wants to know the attitude towards for example the labour union, so

social cues are very important. When the interviewer interviews an skillful about

things or persons that have aught to do with the expert equally a field of study, then social

cues become less important (EMANS, 1986). On the other hand this visibility can

lead to disturbing interviewer effects, when the interviewer guides with his or her

behaviour the interviewee in a special management. This disadvantage tin can be

macerated by using an interview protocol and by the sensation of the interviewer

of this consequence. [7]

In FtF interviews there is no significant fourth dimension delay between question and reply;

the interviewer and interviewee tin can directly react on what the other says or does.

An reward of this synchronous communication is that the answer of the

interviewee is more spontaneous, without an extended reflection. But due to this

synchronous character of the medium, the interviewer must concentrate much

more on the questions to exist asked and the answers given. Especially when an

unstructured or semi structured interview list is used, and the interviewer has to

formulate questions as a consequence of the interactive nature of communication.

WENGRAF (2001, p.194) even speaks of "double attention", which ways

"that yous must be both listening to the informant'south responses to understand what he

or she is trying to get at and, at the same fourth dimension, you must be bearing in mind your

needs to ensure that all your questions are liable to get answered westithin the fixed

time at the level of depth and detail that you lot need". [8]

FtF interviews can be record recorded, of course with the permission of the

interviewee. Using a record recorder has the advantage that the interview report is

FQS 7(four), Art. eleven, Raymond Opdenakker:

Advantages and Disadvantages of Iv Interview Techniques in Qualitative Research

more authentic than writing out notes. Simply record recording likewise brings with it the

danger of non taking any notes during the interview. Taking notes during the

interview is important for the interviewer, even if the interview is tape recorded:

(1) to check if all the questions take been answered, (2) in example of

malfunctioning of the tape recorder, and (3) in instance of "malfunctioning of the

interviewer". In one interview I conducted I should have taken notes because I

had forgotten to push the "record" push button. Another disadvantage of tape recording

the interview is the time a transcription of the record recording consumes. BRYMAN

(2001) suggests that one hr of tape takes five to six hours to transcribe. [9]

The synchronous advice of time and place in a FtF interview likewise has the

reward that the interviewer has a lot of possibilities to create a good interview

ambience. In other words the interviewer can make more use of a standardisation

of the situation. On the other hand this synchronous communication of fourth dimension and

identify can bring with it a lot of time and costs. Interviewing an interviewee in a

identify some 200 kilometres abroad volition have a whole twenty-four hour period, including travelling and

interviewing. Information technology can even take more days, when the interviewee is ill and didn't or

couldn't reach the interviewer in time to cancel the interview. Also the costs, i.e.

travelling costs, can become very loftier in this way. Doing research by using FtF

interviews, which accept to exist held all over the globe, equally for example is the instance

when doing research in the domain of virtual teams, takes a lot of attempt, time and

costs, and is therefore almost impossible for i researcher. [x]

The last advantage of this interview method is that termination of a FtF interview

is easy, compared to other interview methods. In the interaction between

interviewer and interviewee enough clues tin be given that the end of the

interview is near, for example past shuffling the papers and turning off the tape

recorder. An explicit way to cease the interview is by thanking the interviewee

for cooperation and request him or her if there are further remarkdue south that might be

relevant to the topic or the interview procedure. This can atomic number 82 to an emergent of a

whole new area of information (WENGRAF, 2001). [11]

2.2 Telephone interviews: Synchronous communication of fourth dimension,

asynchronous advice of place

Due to the asynchronous advice of place, one of the advantages of

telephone interviewing is the extended admission to participants , compared to FtF

interviews. Isle of mann and STEWART (2000) make a distinction in the post-obit

categories:

•Broad geographical access. People from all over the globe can exist interviewed

—of course if they have admission to telephone or computer. FtF interviewing

can exist very expensive and takes besides much fourth dimension.

•Hard to attain populations. It enables researchers to contact populations that

might be difficult to work with on an FtF basis for example mothers at dwelling

with minor children, shift workers, computer addicts and people with

disabilities.

FQS 7(iv), Art. 11, Raymond Opdenakker:

Advantages and Disadvantages of Four Interview Techniques in Qualitative Enquiry

•Airtight site access. Information technology is a possible means of admission to people on sites, which

have closed or limited access (such equally hospitals religious communities,

prisons, the military, and cults).

•Sensitive accounts. Some personal issues are so sensitive that participants

might be reluctant to talk over them FtF with an interviewer.

•Access to dangerous or politically sensitive due southites. With telephoneast, interviewers

can interview people living or working in war zones, or sites where diseases

are rife, without needing to grapple with the danger—and the bureaucracy—of

visiting the area. [12]

Although the interviewer can interview people that are not easy to admission, one of

the disadvantages of asynchronous communication of identify by telephone is the

reduction of social cues. The interviewer does not meet the interviewee, then torso

language etc. can not be used as a source of extra information. Merely social cues

equally voice and intonation are yet available. Although social cues are reduced,

enough social cues remain for terminating a phone interview without a

trouble. [xiii]

Some other disadvantage of asynchronous communication of place is that the

interviewer has no view on the situation in which the interviewee is situated.

Considering of this the interviewer has lesser possibilities to create a good interview

ambient. FtF interviews can brand more than utilize of a standardisation of the

situation. Due to this lessened possibility to create a standardisation of the

state of affairs with phone an extra disadvantage is that the interviewee tin can stay

"visible" for other employees and managers in the system. As I experienced

for example the interviewee was called away by his manager, so the interview

had to be stopped abruptly. [xiv]

As in FtF interviews synchronous communication of time implies that interviewer

and interviewee tin directly react to what the other says. This likewise leads to the

advantage that the interviewee is more spontaneous in his response and does

not deliberate as well long. But on the other hand, the interviewer has to concentrate

much more on the questions that demand to be asked and the answers given. [xv]

Some other advantage of synchronous communication of time apropos telephone

interviews is, every bit in FtF interviews, the interview can be tape recorded. Tape

recording a phone interview depends on the equipment. A speakerphone is

recommended (Burke & MILLER, 2001). As with FtF interview the telephone

interview is also time consuming due to the fact that the tape has to be

transcribed. [16]

ii.3 MSN messenger interviewsouthward: Synchronous communication of time,

asynchronous communication of place

As with telephone interviews, due to the asynchronous communication of identify,

one of the advantages of MSN messenger interviewing is the extended access to

participants, compared to FtF interviews (COOMBER, 1997). Although the

FQS 7(4), Art. 11, Raymond Opdenakker:

Advantages and Disadvantages of 4 Interview Techniques in Qualitative Inquiry

interviewer can interview people that are non like shooting fish in a barrel to access, one of the

disadvantages of asynchronous communication of place past MSN messenger is

the absence of social cues. The lack of some elements, equally intonation, can be

filled up with the apply of emoticons. Before the users were able to create uncomplicated

emoticons with a normal keyboard, for example a "smiley" could be fabricated equally ": )".

Present the keyboard gives the opportunity to create more advanced

emoticons "☺". This is also the example with MSN messenger, where professionally

developed emoticons tin exist put straight into a message.

Diagram 1: Examples of emoticons [17]

The emoticons take been culturally stipulated still, and reflect culturally

specific meanings. MORRIS (1994) has shown that the aforementioned gestures in

different cultures take several different meanings. Or also: for the same

meanings in different cultures several dissimilar gestures tin exist. Thus, when

the interviewer conducts a MSN messenger interview with an interviewee with

another cultural communication manner, then the interviewer must pay conscientious

attention to the apply of emoticons. It cannot exist assumed that these emoticons will

be interpreted in a manner as meant past the interviewer. Diagram two shows conspicuously,

that emoticons are not universal (AOKI, 1995).

Diagram 2: Comparison betwixt Western and Japanese emoticons. It is nonable that

potent feelings, like acrimony, are reflected directly in the USA and Western European

culture, whereas the Japanese emoticons reverberate more subtle alternatives for these

feelings. [18]

FQS vii(4), Fine art. 11, Raymond Opdenakker:

Advantages and Disadvantages of Four Interview Techniques in Qualitative Research

It depends of class on the topic of the research, and the questions asked,

whether or not the lack of social cues are an advantage (or at least neutral) or a

disadvantage. However, when interviewing interviewees from another civilisation,

co-ordinate to SHACHAF (2005, p.52) "the lack of nonverbal and social cues

reduces miscommunication due to cultural diverseness". [19]

Asynchronous communication of place has, co-ordinate to BAMPTON and

COWTON (2002, paragraph xviii), as well the advantage that they "can protect the

researcher past offering a degree of anonymity, mayhap through the adoption of an

(e-post) pseudonym. A classic example of the positive furnishings of anonymity is a

written report by GERGEN, GERGEN, and BARTON (1973). In this written report individuals who

met and conversed in a situation where they could not encounter one another, sitting in

the dark, disclosed much more intimate details of their lives and of the cocky than

did those who met and conversed in a lighted room. Indeed, those who were in

the darkened status left the encounter feeling more positively well-nigh the other

person, compared to a control status in which people interacted with the lights

on. This important phenomenon is called self-disclosure, or "the act of revealing

personal information to others" (ARCHER, 1980, p.183). CMC discussions

proved to have college levels of spontaneous self-disclosure than FtF discussions

(JOINSON, 2001). And visually bearding participants disclosed significantly

more than information about themselves than not-visually anonymous participants did

(JOINSON, 2001). According to SPEARS and LEA (1994, p.435), "under the

protective cloak of anonymity users can limited the mode they truly feel and

retrieve". When the topic of research asks for information concerning attitudes etc.

from the interviewee, the preference for interviews conducted by MSN messenger

is obvious. The take chances that the interviewee will give a richer and a socially

undesirable answer is higher. [20]

The adjacent reward of asynchronous advice of place is saving costs and

time, considering the interviewer does not take to travel to the interviewee. On the

other mitt, when comparison the different interview techniques concerning the

amount of time the interview itself really costs, MSN messenger is less

favoured. To have a good and in-depth interview by MSN messenger takes about

double the time of a FtF interview (MARKHAM, 2004). Meanwhile the

concentration of the interviewer and the interviewee tin subtract, with negative

consequences for the quality of the interview. A possible solution is to accept

several MSN messengers sessions with the interviewee. The advantages of

several sessions are that both the interviewer and the interviewee stay

full-bodied, and that the interviewer has had the time to overlook the other

interviews and come upwardly with additional questions. [21]

Another advantage of asynchronous communication of place past MSN messenger

is that disturbing groundwork noises (e.g. when people are working with

machinery outside the building) are not recorded. [22]

Asynchronous communication of place tin can be a disadvantage, because the

interviewer has no view on the state of affairs in which the interviewee is situated.

Considering of this the interviewer has bottom possibilities to create a skillful interview

FQS vii(4), Fine art. 11, Raymond Opdenakker:

Advantages and Disadvantages of Four Interview Techniques in Qualitative Research

ambient. Due to this lessened possibility to create a standardisation of the

situation, with MSN messenger an extra disadvantage is that the interviewee tin can

stay "visible" for other employees and managerdue south in the organisation. [23]

Beside advantages and disadvantages due to the synchronous advice of

fourth dimension and the asynchronous communication of place, there are also some

advantages and disadvantages that find their roots in the technology used. In the

first place interviewing with MSN messenger has the advantage that the outcome

tin directly exist downloaded on the figurer, so there is no transcription time. Only

direct recording also brings with information technology the danger of non taking any notes during the

interview. Taking notes during the interview is important for the interviewer, fifty-fifty

if the interview is tape recorded, to overlook if all the questions take been

answered. This danger is fifty-fifty bigger when interviewing with MSN messenger,

because writing in a chat box and taking notes at the same time is more difficult,

when i has simply two hands. Although not taking notes too has advantages,

considering "the immediacy of the exchange excites me. I volition not have to break my

train of thought past having to jot downward notes, so the flow of dialogue should be

smoothen" (POLLOCK, 2004, p.4). [24]

In the 2d place although miscommunication is non uncommon for all the

interview techniques used, which can have its roots in different

operationalisations of words, or cultural differences, MSN messenger interviews

tin have a specific course of miscommunication, when both blazon at the aforementioned time.

On the other mitt, when one is writing, the other can read this at the bottom of

the screen. This reduces the possibility that both are writing at the same time,

which could lead to this miscommunication. [25]

In the 3rd place MSN messenger is "dependent on willing and competent access

to reliable technology on the part of both researcher and subject" (BAMPTON &

COWTON, 2002). Especially when organising an interview with people from other

cultures, for case the Arabian culture, this can be a disadvantage. The new

technological possibilities and from that resulting communication media are a

typically Western (and also oriental: think of Japan) product. Some cultures, like

for example Arab cultures accept much resistance confronting the setting-upwards of such

communicative media. Considering of this also the utilize of MSN messenger etc. in

this culture is less used. Likewise in that location will be differences in cultures with regard to

the media preference. Ane civilization swears by e-mail service, thus another culture gives

the preference to video conferencing and another to FTF communication. [26]

In the quaternary place as online interviewing involves at the most basic level the

exchange of texts, this way of interviewing may be more suitable for people who

type fast, and, depending on the research question, whose personalities come

through in the text as clearly equally they would in FtF (MARKHAM, 2004). [27]

In the fifth place terminating an interview in MSN messenger tin exist more than

difficult, considering it tin seem very abrupt. [28]

FQS vii(four), Art. eleven, Raymond Opdenakker:

Advantages and Disadvantages of Iv Interview Techniques in Qualitative Research

2.4 E-mail interviews: Asynchronous communication of time and identify

Equally with telephone and MSN messenger interviews, one of the advantages of east-

post interviewing, due to asynchronous communication of place, is the extended

access to participants, compared to FTF interviews (COOMBER, 1997). And as

with using MSN messenger, a disadvantage of usin1000 east-grandail is the complete lack of

social cues. In that locationfore due east-mail interviewing "provides a limited register for

communication" (BAMPTON & COWTON, 2002, paragraph 25). Using emoticons,

as already discussed in the former paragraph, tin can diminish theast effects of this

disadvantage. But the interviewer must always be aware that the use of

emoticons is non ever advisable according to the interviewee. As each

interviewee has his or her own communication way, the interviewer has to adjust

the personal communication style online accordingly (KIVITSouthward, 2005). In that location are

also researchers that warn for an overestimation of the employ of emoticons, equally "eastward-

mail messages containing due eastmoticons did not chiliadenerate different interpretations than

did messages without emoticons" (WALTHER & D'ADDARIO, 2001, p.342). [29]

Another advantage of asynchronous advice of identify is that agonizing

groundwork noises are not recorded. Electronic mail interviewing has of course the extra

advantage that the interviewer can formulate the questions, and the interviewee

can answer the questions at his or her own convenience without noise disturbance

due to independence of place and time. [30]

Asynchronous communication of place as well has the advantage that an e-mail

interview tin exist much cheaper than e.g. a FtF interview, because there are no

travelling costs. On the other hand this technique can cost a lot of fourth dimension. Due to the

asynchronous communication of time, the interviewee might have to wait due southometimes

for days or weeks before he/she answers the questions. This does not just atomic number 82 to

the take chances that the interviewee will lose involvement in the research, but likewise to the risk

that the interviewee may forget to answer to questions (KIVITS, 2005). Sending

reminders at an appropriate time to the interviewee can reduce this trouble. [31]

With an e-mail service interview, synchronous communication of time is impossible.

Although the advantage tin can be tlid the interviewee does non hesitate in giving a

socially undesirable reply but the run a risk of a spontaneou.s. answer to a

question is smaller, considering the interviewee has more time to reflect on the

question. And spontaneity can be the footing for the richness of data collected in

some interviews. It depends of class on the enquiry questions if this reflective

behaviour is a disadvantage or not. On the other mitt an due east-mail service interview has the

advantage that the interviewer tin can have time to reply to the developing

dialogue (BAMPTON & COWTON, 2002; KIVITSouth, 2005). [32]

According to BAMPTON and CowTON (2002, paragraph 7) asynchronous

advice of time, every bit is the nature of an e-mail interview, also has obvious

advantages equally "busy interviewees practice not take to identify a mutually convenient

fourth dimension to talk to each other". Also

FQS 7(4), Art. eleven, Raymond Opdenakker:

Advantages and Disadvantages of 4 Interview Techniques in Qualitative Research

"in permitting a lengthy filibuster between communications, an e-interview gives the

interviewee time to construct a response to a particular question. It provides for

example the opportunity to find information which might be required, although the

researcher and so does not know what resources the interviewee has fatigued upon"

(paragraph 8). [33]

They also remark that "information technology is possible to interview in a foreign language fifty-fifty if the

interviewer is comparatively fluent for a face-to-face interview" (paragraph 19). A

translating tool that tin can exist very useful for conducting these interviews is

http://babelfish.altavista.com. Although ELRON and VIGODA (2003, p.330) warn

that "(…) the lack of contiguous social cues results in greater cultural and

language barriers". [34]

As with MSN messenger, abreast advantages and disadvantages due to the

asynchronous communication of fourth dimension and identify, there are also some advantages

and disadvantages due to the technology used. In the kickoff place the outcome of

an e-mail interview can directly exist downloaded on the reckoner, so there is no

transcription time. As BAMPTON and COWTON (2002, paragraph 25) state

concerning e-mail interviews: "it offers meaning savings in terms of fourth dimension and

financial resources, particularly in relation to the emptying of the need to travel

or to transcribe tapes". [35]

In the 2d place in an e-mail interview it is not necessary to accept notes,

because the interviewer tin can always overlook the questions and answers tchapeau

already have passed before sending new questions to the interviewee

(MARKHAM, 2004). [36]

In the 3rd identify there is the possibility of continuing to collect data simply

because the interviewer tin and not because he or she should (MARKHAM,

2004). This could go across the enquiry aim. [37]

In the quaternary place terminating an interview in east-mail tin seem very abrupt. Some

e-mail interaction will simply die away. Others will be terminated with adept

wishes. But according to Isle of man and STEWArt (2000, p.157) "if the interaction is

deep and extended there may be difficulties of closure". [38]

3. Summary

Beside contiguous interview and telephone interview the apply of new

communication forms such as electronic mail and MSN messenger opens new means for

qualitative research workers for data collection. The blazon of interview technique

called by the researcher can depend upon the advantages and disadvantages,

which are linked to every interview technique. [39]

FQS 7(4), Art. 11, Raymond Opdenakker:

Advantages and Disadvantages of 4 Interview Techniques in Qualitative Research

Using face-to-face interviews for collecting information are preferred, when:

•social cues of the interviewee are very important information sources for the

interviewer (of course dependent on the enquiry problem);

•the interviewer has plenty upkeep and time for travelling, or the interviewees

live near the interviewer;

•standardisation of the interview situation is important. [twoscore]

Using telephone interviews for collecting information are preferred, when:

•social cues of the interviewee are less or not of import information sources

for the interviewer (of course dependent on the research problem);

•the interviewer has a pocket-sized upkeep and less time for travelling;

•looking for admission to people on sites, which take closed or limited access

(such equally hospitals religious communities, prisons, the military, and cults);

•standardisation of the interview state of affairs is not of import;

•some anonymity is requested. [41]

Using MSN messenger interviews for collecting information are preferred, when:

•social cues of the interviewee are not of import information sources for the

interviewer (of form dependent on the research problem);

•the interviewer has a minor budget and less time for travelling;

•looking for access to people on sites, which have closed or limited access

(such equally hospitals religious communities, prisons, the military, and cults);

•standardisation of the interview situation is non important;

•anonymity is requested;

•both the interviewer and the interviewee are competent enough in type writing

and using (and have admission to) computers. [42]

Using email interviews for collecting information is preferred, when:

•social cues of the interviewee are not of import information sources for the

interviewer (of class dependent on the research trouble);

•the interviewer has a small upkeep and less time for travelling;

•looking for access to people on sites, which take closed or limited access

(such every bit hospitals religious communities, prisons, the military, and cults);

•standardisation of the interview situation is not important;

•anonymity is requested;

•both the interviewer and the interviewee are both competent plenty in type

writing and using (and have access to) computers;

•there is a huge time difference, considering interviewer and interviewee live in

dissimilar parts of the world separated by several fourth dimension zones, and synchronous

FQS seven(4), Fine art. eleven, Raymond Opdenakker:

Advantages and Disadvantages of Four Interview Techniques in Qualitative Research

interviewing means for one party (interviewer or interviewee) interviewing at

night;

•Information technology is necessary that the interviewee takes time to respond to the developing

dialogue. [43]

4. Conclusions

In summary, all four interview techniques share common principles/nuts and

can be every bit used for conducting interviews in research. Of import distinctive

criterion is however the nature of the information i wants to obtain, especially

the importance of social cues. As already mentioned, if the interviewee is seen as

a subject, and as an irreplaceable person, from whom the interviewer wants to

accept his or her opinion for example almost the labour union, and then social cues are

very important. Interviewing by FtF or by telephone will be more than adoptblood-red. When

the interviewer interviews an skillful about things or persons that have nada to

exercise with the expert, then social cues become less important. For such situations

all 4 interview techniques are appropriate for use. [44]

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank Carin CUYPERS (Bureau Lara, kingdom of the netherlands) for the

German translation of the abstruse, and Natalia Martin CRUZ (Academy of

Valladolid, Spain) for the Castilian translation of the abstract.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Four Interview Techniques in Qualitative Research

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interpretation in computer-mediated communication. Social Science Estimator Review, 19(iii), 324-

347.

Wengraf, Tom (2001). Qualitative research interviewing. London: Sage.

Author

Raymond OPDENAKKER studied labour- and

system psychology. He is an external PhD

candidate at the Eindhoven Academy of

Technology. The title of his PhD research is "The

strategic momentum in virtual teams".

Contact:

Raymond Opdenakker

Eindhoven Academy of Engineering

Faculty Technology Management

Pav.R.0.22

PO Box 513

5600 MB Eindhoven

Netherlands

E-mail: R.J.K.Opdenakker@tm.tue.nl

Citation

Opdenakker, Raymond (2006, August). Advantages and Disadvantages of Four Interview

Techniques in Qualitative Research [44 paragraphs]. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum:

Qualitative Social Research , 7 (4), Fine art. eleven, http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs0604118.

Revised: February iii, 2014

... The survey was carried out face-to-face and through phone interviews and information was collected with the help of structured questionnaire. Face-to-face interviews were the main mode of data collection, as it immune extra data to be gained through exact and non-exact communications (Opdenakker, 2006). Non-verbal communication such as body languages, facial expression and attitude are social cues observable during face-to-face interviews. ...

Organic farming practices and biological command (biocontrol) are relatively less adopted in agriculture compared to conventional agricultural practices globally. In recent years, it is becoming more than common, but in Malaysia it is withal disfavored. More often than not, in Malaysia, not many farmers are practicing organic farming and adopting biocontrol. This written report aims to determine the level of knowledge and credence of vegetable farmers about organic farming practices and biocontrol in the Kampar district. 50 farmers were selected using non-probability sampling, whereas face-to-face up and phone interviews were conducted to collect data with the help of a questionnaire. The respondents had a proficient level of noesis (mean score of four.00) and a neutral perception on the economic benefits of organic farming (hateful score of 2.65). They have a moderate level of cognition on biocontrol (mean score of 3.24). The respondents' acceptance level for organic farming practices (hateful score of 2.65) and biocontrol (mean score of 3.thirteen) were neutral, mainly due to the low local need for organic vegetables and the low confidence in the effectiveness of biocontrol. The respondents possess moderate knowledge of organic farming and biocontrol but conventional farming was all the same preferred. The acceptance level for these practices remained neutral. Participatory programme such every bit farmer field schoolhouse tin exist introduced to increase the adoption of these practices.

... Foi ainda utilizada a análise de discurso para compreender o sentido da linguagem (Orlandi, 2010). Para comparação das informações contidas nas falas dos entrevistados foi utilizada a técnica de informações repetidas em situação sincrônica, em que o mesmo questionário foi aplicado a todos bone entrevistados (Goldenberg, 1999;Opdenakker, 2006). Desse modo, foi possível obter fidelidade nos relatos e estabelecer comparações entre as informações contidas nas falas dos entrevistados (Silva & Fossá, 2015 Antes de trabalharem como condutores de turismo, os entrevistados atuavam em diversas profissões, sendo as mais citadas as de pescador artesanal (18,2%) e agricultor (12,ane%), (Fig. iii). ...

Da
Fábio Pereira da Conceição
Priscila Maria da Costa Santos
Marcelo Vidal

A identificação da percepção dos profissionais do turismo sobre os atrativos em áreas protegidas due east como estes atores atuam junto aos visitantes permite aos gestores a elaboração de estratégias de manejo da visitação mais eficientes. Neste artigo discutimos aspectos da percepção e da atuação de condutores de turismo sobre every bit interações com botos (Inia geoffrensis) no Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Brasil. Utilizando um questionário semiestruturado, foram realizadas entrevistas com 33 condutores locais de turismo. Todos os entrevistados eram do sexo masculino, com faixa etária predominante de 38 a 47 anos (45,5%) e com ensino fundamental incompleto para a maioria (21,2%). Além do idioma português, falado por todos bone entrevistados, apenas 12 (36,36%) condutores de turismo afirmaram falar outros idiomas. Antes de trabalharem como condutores de turismo, os entrevistados atuavam em outras profissões, sendo pescador artesanal (18,2%) e agricultor (12,ane%) as mais citadas. Os temas 'comportamento' e 'dieta' (21,eight%) são bone mais abordados nas explicações sobre os botos aos visitantes. A maioria dos entrevistados (90,9%) acredita que o turismo com botos auxilia na preservação dos cetáceos, pois informações de conservação são fornecidas aos visitantes e essa sensibilização ambiental pode contribuir para minimizar a caça destes animais cujas carcaças são utilizadas na pesca da piracatinga (Calophysus macropterus). Os resultados contribuem para o melhor entendimento do uso público no Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas e na formulação de estratégias de gestão das interações turísticas com botos. Palavras-chave: Amazônia; Inia geoffrensis; visitação; unidade de conservação.

... Turning to the second phase of the study, key informant interviews were completed for in-depth case studies of a subset of three universities. This stage complements the document content piece of work and aids interpretation of the appearance of EL and its TG connections (Opdenakker, 2006). One university-and-EL partner case was selected from each of the three categories of institutions from the document analysis phase. ...

Michael Buzzelli
Emmanuel Asafo-Adjei

This newspaper examines the recent growth of experiential learning (EL) and the academy-customs (or and so-chosen town-gown, TG) connections created equally a result of this expansion. The research is framed by critical scholarship on the nature and role of the university and the place of liberal instruction specifically, as well as policy drivers aimed at social and economic impacts from EL. Two subthemes are also examined: get-go, the role of the arts, humanities and social sciences disciplines in EL expansion and, second, the extent to which TG connections focus on the university'southward local host community as opposed to more distant and even international arrangements. Mixed research methods including public document analysis and fundamental informant interviews are used to document and translate EL developments across 9 varied universities in Ontario, Canada. The results underline broad sector commitment to EL that in turn creates new and different TG connections for the academy. Rapid expansion has brought a multifariousness of challenges identified both by universities and community EL partners. The paper concludes with discussion of policy implications and consideration of the future of EL in low-cal of the 'digital pivot' of the COVID-xix pandemic.

... Interviews took place at people'due south homes, at the beach, and in the gardens. In-depth insights were gained through these face-to-face up interviews [81,82] and enabled culturally appropriate forms of verbal advice and storytelling. The household group interviews used 'Talanoa' methodologies, a concept prevalent in Pacific Island societies to describe a formal or casual dialogue or exchange of ideas that takes place contiguous [fourscore]. ...

Many low-lying communities around the earth are increasingly experiencing littoral hazard risks. As such, climate-related relocation has received significant global attending equally an adaptation response. Yet, emerging cases of populations resisting relocation in preference for remaining in place are emerging. This paper provides an account of residents of Togoru, a depression-lying coastal settlement on Viti Levu Island, Republic of the fiji islands. Despite facing significant coastal impacts in the form of coastal erosion, tidal inundation, and saltwater intrusion, Togoru residents are opposing plans for relocation; instead opting for in-situ accommodation. We conceptualize place-belongingness to a land and people—through personal, celebrated and bequeathed, relational, cultural, economic, and legal connections—as critical to adaptation and mobility controlling. We argue that for adaptation strategies to be successful and sustainable, they must acknowledge the values, perspectives, and preferences of local people and account for the tangible and intangible connections to a place.

... Email and social media interviews in item have been documented to allow greater access to participants across time zones and geographical distances, giving participants flexibility to reflect and reply (Meho, 2006). Opdenakker (2006) reports the method as useful in contexts such as natural disasters, where it may not be feasible or safe for researchers to enter the field. ...

Violence confronting women and girls (VAWG) often increases after disasters and humanitarian crises. This article presents evidence from Nepal, a country where notable progress has been made on gender equality, but where VAWG continues to be an endemic. The 2015 April convulsion in Nepal led to an increase in reporting of VAWG, and women and girls in camps and temporary shelters reported fear and insecurity instilled by take a chance of violence and lack of privacy. Grassroots responses to the convulsion showed how humanitarian assist, emergency health care, and local disaster responses can challenge VAWG while offering condom spaces for women and girls. Enquiry since the earthquakes with activists and non-government organisations (NGOs) indicates how disaster response efforts face continuous challenges posed by VAWG. This article draws on interviews with grassroots activists and NGO staff in Nepal, and shares experiences and lessons learnt that can assist in addressing, challenging, and minimising VAWG in emergency situations and humanitarian crisis. This article is informed past thematic analysis of qualitative data from three dissever studies, collected by employing semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and social media interaction with women and girls affected by the earthquake, women activists, and NGO staff. Our research highlights a number of barriers to addressing VAWG, such as preexisting vulnerabilities in low-income contexts, the breakdown of social/family networks, and lack of pre-crisis protection mechanisms. Further, our findings indicate that the cultural and socio-economic context influences women and girls' experiences of violence during humanitarian crises. Our findings emphasise the importance of taking an intersectional and inclusive approach to ensure that all women, including the most vulnerable women and girls (those with disabilities, Dalits, older women, and unmarried women) are included in prevention mechanisms, with a special focus on gender-based violence (GBV) chance assessment and protection interventions. Based on our inquiry in Nepal, we brand recommendations to practitioners and policy makers for interventions which address VAWG in humanitarian crises

... Every bit entrevistas foram realizadas individualmente com os entrevistados para evitar interferência de outros atores que pudessem estar nas proximidades (Schensul et al., 1999) e, para obter fidelidade nos relatos e estabelecer comparações entre as informações obtidas (Silva et al., 2015), foi utilizada a técnica de informações repetidas em situação sincrônica, em que o mesmo roteiro foi aplicado a todos bone entrevistados (Goldenberg, 1999;Opdenakker, 2006). O suporte metodológico para o modelo de pesquisa aqui apresentado, de natureza quali-quantitativa, considerou ainda a bibliografia especializada sobre métodos de pesquisa científica e social (Gil, 2008;Pereira et al., 2018). ...

Marcelo Vidal
Fábio Pereira da Conceição

O pelicano-pardo (Pelecanus occidentalis) é uma ave marinha com ampla distribuição geográfica pela região costeira exercise continente americano. A espécie vive a maior parte da sua vida no mar, retornando ao continente apenas para nidificar. O presente trabalho relata a ocorrência de pelicanos-pardos no Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazônia brasileira, due east descreve como pescadores artesanais que residem no entorno desta Unidade de Conservação vêm interagindo com este visitante inesperado. Por meio de avistamentos em campo e entrevistas com moradores locais, foram registrados até seis pelicanos-pardos que, segundo moradores locais, apareceram pela primeira vez no segundo semestre de 2019. As interações entre bone pescadores east as aves envolvem especialmente a oferta de peixes, mas também foram registrados conflitos, como quando os pelicanos são atraídos pelo cheiro do peixe e vão em direção às embarcações de pesca, fazendo com que os pescadores tenham que afugentar as aves, east o relato de abate de uma das aves para consumo. Este é o registro mais interior da espécie em ambiente continental amazônico e o primeiro a descrever um agrupamento de pelicanos-pardos em interação com moradores da região. Os resultados apresentados demonstram que pouco sabemos sobre os fatores que influenciam a migração e dispersão dos pelicanos-pardos, contribuem para um melhor entendimento de atitudes culturais relacionadas às interações humano-brute, e subsidiam o manejo conservacionista destas aves pouco comuns em áreas interiores amazônicas.

... This study uses a qualitative research blueprint with phenomenological framework, to identify participants 'bodily experiences and perceptions about the use of digital creative arts therapy for grooming, therapy and supervision (McLeod 2011). Data drove procedures are based on the phenomenological tradition with qualitative interviews every bit the primary information collection (Polkinghorne, 2005;Opdenakker, 2006). These qualitative in-depth interviews were conducted individually and focus groups aimed at investigating in depth and obtaining detailed data on specific issues or experiences; to discover aspects of unexpected experiences shared by respondents (Ponterotto, 2005;. ...

Azizah Abdullah

This qualitative studies investigates the helpful aspects of using digital artistic arts therapy during the Covid 19 Crisis. Thirty participants: 10 practitoners who employed online artistic arts therapy and 20 clients involved for this study. Practitioners attended series of online training to use digital creative arts therapy for psychological supports project, followed by online supervision via Zoom. Afterward conducting 4-to-six online psychological therapy using creative arts therapeutic tools with private customer, participants then joined online group supervision through digital engineering apps such as Zoom or Webex. In-depth interviews were conducted using qualitative investigation with both practitioners and clients , Information were analized using thematic assay method. The results revealed seven themes as helpful aspects : facilitates remote communication, like shooting fish in a barrel storage of digital fine art media, develop a variety of digital artistic arts tools, managing home-based therapy, comeback in digital technology skills, foster distance psychological supports, and increased global learning. The finding indicates the demand for innovative applied science for online creative arts therapy to provide long distance practices and clinical supervision that will increse clients to access psychological therapies when they're unable to meet confront to face up.

... One participant'due south data was drawn from an email transcript. This was analysed in the same way as interview transcripts, notwithstanding these data sources are non directly comparable [51,52]. The email transcript was short and responses could not be explored further, as they might exist in an interview. ...

Aled Picton
Sheila Greenfield
Jayne Parry

Background Struggling at medical schoolhouse incorporates academic failure, form disruption and early on course get out. Struggling is usually multi-factorial involving bookish, personal, financial and health factors. Struggling students may fail to engage with available back up. First twelvemonth students are particularly susceptible as they transition to university and a professional career. Methods The study aim was to explore medical students' own voices on struggling and appraise how they friction match up to existing literature. During 1 academic year, all get-go twelvemonth medical students at the University of Birmingham (Britain) who opted to leave or were required to withdraw ( northward = 52) were asked to participate in an individual get out interview. 15 students responded and fourteen (27%) agreed to be interviewed. Interviews were face up to face ( north = 10), telephone ( n = 3) and via e-mail ( northward = 1). Interviews were unstructured and led by a full general open question. Framework assay identified key data themes. Results Students described year one of medical school as a disquisitional transition. They simultaneously needed to arrange to existence a academy educatee, a medical student and a doctor. A six-grouping typology of students emerged, each of which struggled with i or more of these adaptations. The groups were: wrong degree choice, mental wellness problems, astute crunch, at chapters, irksome starter and family rock. Some students experienced an isolated problem from within this typology. Most had a multi-factorial story of struggling. Mental health issues and astute crises were the nearly mutual issues. Early professional identity formation was a key hurdle. Help-seeking behaviours were varied. Conclusions This report explores the narratives of medical students who struggled from an early stage and presents a data-driven typology of their issues. Information technology advances existing qualitative understanding of this topic, which to date is predominantly derived from educator perceptions and non specific to early course issues. Although our results broadly cohere with existing noesis, nosotros also present novel findings which may reverberate our focus on first year students. Issues around early professional identity formation may reflect the increasing emphasis on professionalism in medical schoolhouse curricula. Listening to these narratives could assist academy staff to identify students at run a risk of struggling for targeted back up.

Background The outbreak of COVID-19 with its severe social restrictions touched the daily life of nearly people. While everyday social life becomes difficult for citizens with economic and cultural capital, information technology becomes even worse for vulnerable groups such as persons with mental health and substance use disorders, who are particularly vulnerable to social exclusion. The aim of this written report is to investigate how the beginning COVID-xix lockdown affected the everyday life and health of persons with co-occurring mental health and substance use disorders. Methods This qualitative study reports data from 17 individual interviews and 1 focus group of five participants, all with a self-reported mental wellness and substance use disorder. Interviews were conducted based on a semi-structured interview guide in September and Oct 2020 in a medium-sized local say-so in Norway. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. A reference grouping of people with varied cognition and experiences of the phenomenon were involved in study design, recruitment, information generation and analysis. Results The analysis identified four interrelated principal themes, describing how the get-go lockdown affected the everyday life and health of persons suffering from a mental health and substance use disorder: (i) The COVID-19 outbreak as a perceived challenge, (2) A decline in mental health and well-existence, (3) Increased substance use challenges, and (iv) Diverse experiences with health and social services. The results show that people with a co-occurring disorder have challenges with digital tools and/or do not have the appropriate equipment. Further, participants were not concerned about condign infected themselves, simply infecting others. Conclusions Persons with a mental wellness and substance use disorder face up major challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic. There is a need to maintain continuous low-threshold services especially directed towards persons with co-occurring disorders during the pandemic. Furthermore, it is important to improve the digital skills of every service user or offer alternatives to digital consultations and meetings.

Azizah Abdullah

ABSTRAK Beberapa siri kajian berkaitan faktor-faktor yang membantu apabila menggunakan terapi kreatif dalam kaunseling telah dilaksanakan untuk menerokai kelebihan pendekatan ini sebagai medium teraputik dan alat berkomunikasi antara kaunselor dan klien. Selain daripada itu kajian-kajian tersebut adalah untuk mengenalpasti faktor risiko atau "potential harm" dalam proses kaunseling, kepada kaunselor dan klien. Kajian melibatkan tiga geran penyelidikan iaitu geran KTP Projek Pemindahan Ilmu , geran Inovasi Sosial UUM dan geran Kolaborasi 1 + three universiti dan agensi. Sebagai tambahan, data juga dikumpul melalui penilaian latihan professional, bengkel jangka pendek dan praktis di makmal kaunseling untuk kaunselor pelatih. Peserta yang terlibat dibahagikan kepada tiga kategori: 1) Kaunselor atau guru bimbingan yang bekerja di berbagai seting dan sekolah, two) Kaunselor pelatih di peringkat Ijazah Sarjana Muda, dan three) Peserta atau klien yang terlibat dalam projek-projek penyelidikan. Lapan teknik asas terapi kreatif yang digunakan merangkumi menconteng, melukis, mewarna, membuat kolaj, menyusun objek, membuat topeng, terapi bermain 'play doh' dan terapi pergerakan. Aplikasi terapi kreatif ini menggunakan pendekatan teori Humanistik Pemusatan Insan Carl Rogers dan Natalie Rogers. Pengumpulan data dijalankan melalui kaedah temubual kualitatif secara individu atau kumpulan berfokus dan data statistic melalui kaedah tinjauan. Kertas kerja ini hanya melapurkan information kualitatif melalui analisis Kualitatif-Tematik bertujuan untuk mendapatkan tema-tema berkaitan dua objektif bagi kajian ini. Hasil kajian menunjukkan terapi kreatif dalam kaunseling amat membantu pada peringkat pra-kaunseling lisan, sebagai alat komunikasi dalam proses penerokaan dan mengenalpasti isu klien, serta sebagai medium untuk terapi penjagaan kendiri (self-care therapy). Enam tema utama yang berkaitan dengan faktor-faktor yang membantu aplikasi terapi kreatif dalam kaunseling telah dikenalpasti. Manakala faktor risiko atau "potential harm" dalam proses kaunseling memperlihatkan lima tema utama. Penemuan kajian ini menunjukkan kepentingan dan keperluan terapi kreatif dalam perkhidmatan kaunseling dimensi atau alaf baru, disamping perlu berhati-hati untuk mengelakkan kesan negatif terutamanya kepada klien. Kata kunci: Praktis kreatif, faktor yang membantu, faktor risiko, kaunseling alaf baru

Joseph B. Walther
KP D'Addario

Emoticons are graphic representations of facial expressions that many electronic mail users embed in their messages. These symbols are widely known and usually recognized among computer-mediated communication (CMC) users, and they are described by virtually observers as substituting for the nonverbal cues that are missing from CMC in comparison to contiguous communication. Their empirical impacts, however, are undocumented. An experiment sought to decide the effects of three mutual emoticons on message interpretations. Hypotheses drawn from literature on nonverbal communication reflect several plausible relationships between emoticons and verbal messages. The results signal that emoticons' contributions were outweighed by verbal content, merely a negativity issue appeared such that any negative bulletin aspect-verbal or graphic-shifts bulletin estimation in the direction of the negative element.

Lisa A. Burke-Smalley
Monica G. Miller

This paper presents specific and useful suggestions for successfully using phone interviewing as a means of data collection in research studies. The lessons and insights are intended for anyone conducting research with phone interviews, particularly the novice researcher. The authors speak directly to the reader and offer numerous practical recommendations, generally absent-minded from the traditional inquiry methods literature. URN: urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs010271

This article examines how interaction past means of estimator-mediated communication (CMC) affects the operation of both status differentials and ability relations. The authors try to provide a cosmetic to the ascendant assessment, specially within social psychological analyses, that CMC tends to equalize status, decentralize and democratize determination making, and thus empower and liberate the private user. This emphasis contrasts with sociological critiques employing the Foucauldian metaphor of the panopticon, claiming that power relations tin can really exist reinforced in CMC. The authors debate that prevailing conceptualizations of influence and power within social psychology have tended to prefigure the more optimistic business relationship, and outline a theoretical framework in which processes of "panoptic ability" in CMC are given a more concrete social psychological foundation.

Joseph B. Walther
Kyle P D 'addario

Emoticons are graphic representations of facial expressions that many east-postal service users embed in their messages. These symbols are widely known and commonly recognized amidst calculator-mediated communication (CMC) users, and they are described by almost observers as substituting for the nonverbal cues that are missing from CMC in comparing to face-to-face communication. Their empirical impacts, however, are undocumented. An experiment sought to make up one's mind the furnishings of three common emoticons on message interpretations. Hypotheses drawn from literature on nonverbal communication reverberate several plausible relationships betwixt emoticons and exact messages. The results indicate that emoticons' contributions were outweighed past verbal content, just a negativity effect appeared such that whatever negative bulletin aspect—verbal or graphic—shifts bulletin interpretation in the direction of the negative chemical element.

Adam N Joinson

Three studies examined the notion that computer mediated advice (CMC) can be characterised past high levels of self-disclosure. In Study i, significantly higher levels of spontaneous self-disclosure were institute in computer-mediated compared to face-to-confront discussions. Study ii examined the role of visual anonymity in encouraging self-disclosure during CMC. Visually bearding participants disclosed significantly more information most themselves than not-visually anonymous participants. In Report three, individual and public self-awareness were independently manipulated, using videoconferencing cameras and accountability cues, to create a 2x2 pattern (public cocky-sensation (high and low) x private self-sensation (high and low). Information technology was plant that heightened private self-awareness, when combined with reduced public self-sensation, was associated with significantly higher levels of spontaneous cocky-disclosure during computer-mediated communication.

Steinar Kvale

Clarifies the mode of understanding involved in the qualitative research interview in psychology past offset pointing out a lack of theory for the interview. 12 aspects of the style of understanding in the qualitative enquiry interview are described equally being (one) centered on the interviewee's life-world; (2) in search of the meaning of phenomena in his/her life-world; (3) qualitative; (iv) descriptive; (5) specific; (6) presuppositionless; (7) focused on sure themes; (8) open for ambiguities; (9) open for changes; (10) dependent on the sensitivity of the interviewer; (11) in interpersonal interaction; and (12) a positive experience. It is postulated and argued that the assay of the nature of understanding within the hermeneutical and phenomenological philosophical traditions may provide a frame of reference for clarifying the methodological status of the qualitative research interview. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

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